Competency Goal Six Essay

To maintain a commitment to professionalism I will introduce daily opportunities for the children within the classroom to explore their surrounding world through play, examination, art and science activities and much more. The children will be encouraged to explore each center within the classroom; these centers will be set up based upon the theme of the week. There will be an art, library, block area, home living, manipulative and science/sensory center within the classroom. At times some of these centers may be changed according to the theme plan for the week. A lesson plan will be posted for the parents to view each week. At the end of the day there is a daily event note posted on the door to let each parent view what we had done for the day. Along with a â€Å"toddler gram/infant gram† note that will go home with each child stating the art activity, the science/sensory activity, the gross motor activity (outside play), as well as diaper change/potty time, what we had for snack and lunch and any reminders for the following day. Also we have incorporated a monthly calendar. Each parent may take this home to give them an idea of the theme that we will be doing each week, any important dates that are coming up and any reminders that may be needed. Twice per year there are conference times set up for the parents to meet with teachers in regards to the progress of their child and what we will be working on for the remainder of the year. The parents are encouraged to attend one or both of these. If the parents have questions or concerns they are encouraged to ask at anytime, whether it is daily or at the time of the conferences. Also if a parent would like to have a consultation before or after the arranged times they are also encourage to seek this opportunity at any time. For personal growth I will attend any workshop that will encourage and help me implement various activities within the classroom.

Importance of Quality in Different Manufacturing Processes

| Importance of Quality in different manufacturing processes| | | | | | | | TERM PAPER ————————————————- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This term paper would not be accomplished without the generous contributions of individuals and organizations. I am very much grateful to them for their unlimited help and support. Additionally, we thank our course instructor Fateh Pal Singh who believed that I could terminate this term paper on time. His moral guidelines, endless effort, and joyful encouragement made me successful in this paper.Furthermore, I want to show our appreciation to the executives, to the librarians of LPU library, and to the lab-assistants of the computer labs, for their unlimited patience during the time of research writing. Moreover, I are also thankful to our classmates, and friends for their helps and supports. I would like to show our endless gratitude by specifying name o f FATEH PAL SINGH   for her support in this term paper. †¦Mayank Sibal†¦ ROLL NO. :RF4005B37 Contents: 1. Defination of Quality 2. Activities of Quality 3. Quality Control 4.Quality Improvment 5. Steps of Quality Improved in Manufacturing Process 6. Taguchi’s Approach to quality Engineering 7. Robust Design 8. Adverse Performance Shaping Factors DEFINITION OF QUALITY How is quality defined? It is interesting to observe how its definition varies according to the particular emphasis of quality activities. Juran (1964) defines quality as fitness for use. Crosby (1979) describes quality in terms of conformance to requirements. Deming (1986) says that quality is concerned with the present and future needs of the customer.For Feigenbaum (1983) quality is to do with the combined product characteristics of engineering and manufacture that determine the degree to which the product will meet the expectations of the customer. Taguchi (1986) defines quality as the loss a prod uct causes society once it has been shipped, apart from any losses caused by its intrinsic functions. According to ISO 8402 (International Organization for Standardization,1986), quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that have a bearing on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.Recently, the most widely used definition is that of ISO 9001 (2000). It says that a quality is a characteristic that a product or service must have. For example, products much be reliable, useable, and repairable. These are some of the characteristics that a good quality product must have. Similarly, service should becourteous, efficient, and effective. These are some of the characteristics that a good quality service must have. In short, a quality is a desirable characteristic. However, not all qualities are equal. Some are more important than others. The most important qualities are the ones that customers want.These are the qualities that products and serv ices must have. So providing quality products and services is all about meeting customer requirements. ACTIVITIES OF QUALITY In the manufacturing industry, activities concerned with quality can be divided into six stages: 1. Product planning: planning for the function, price, life cycle, etc. of the product concerned. 2. Product design: designing the product to have the functions decided in product planning. 3. Process design: designing the manufacturing process to have the functions decided in the product design. 4.Production: the process of actually making the product so that it is of the designed quality. 5. Sales: activities to sell the manufactured product. 6. After-sales service: customer service activities such as maintenance and product services. * Note that there are three different characteristics of quality in an overall quality system in the manufacturing industry: 1. Quality of design: quality of product planning, product designand process design. 2. Quality of conforma nce: quality of production. 3. Quality of service: quality of sales and after-sales services. Nowadays, these three aspects of quality are equally important in the manufacturing company. If any one of them is not up to the mark, then the overall quality system is unbalanced, and the company will face serious problems. Quality control Quality control is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects: 1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well managed processes performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records 2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications 3.Soft elements, such as, personnel integrity, confidence, organizational culture, motivation, team spirit and quality relationships. 4. The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way. Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncov er defects, and reporting to management who make the decision to allow or deny the release, whereas quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production, and associated processes, to avoid, or at least minimize, issues that led to the defects in the first place. ———————————————— Quality improvement There are many methods for quality improvement. These cover product improvement, process improvement and people based improvement. In the following list are methods of quality management and techniques that incorporate and drive quality improvement: 1. ISO 9004:2008 — guidelines for performance improvement. 2. ISO 15504-4: 2005 — information technology — process assessment — Part 4: Guidance on use for process improvement and process capability determination. 3.QFD — quality function deployment, also known as the house of quality appr oach. 4. Kaizen  Ã¢â‚¬â€ Japanese for change for the better; the common English term is  continuous improvement. 5. Zero Defect Program — created by NEC Corporation of Japan, based upon  statistical process control  and one of the inputs for the inventors of Six Sigma. 6. Six Sigma  Ã¢â‚¬â€ 6? , Six Sigma combines established methods such as statistical process control,  design of experiments  and  FMEA  in an overall framework. 7. PDCA  Ã¢â‚¬â€ plan, do, check, act cycle for quality control purposes. Six Sigma's  DMAIC  method (define, measure, analyze, improve, control) may be viewed as a particular implementation of this. ) 8. Quality circle  Ã¢â‚¬â€ a group (people oriented) approach to improvement. 9. Taguchi methods  Ã¢â‚¬â€ statistical oriented methods including quality robustness, quality loss function, and target specifications. 10. The Toyota Production System — reworked in the west into  lean manufacturing. 11. Kansei Engin eering  Ã¢â‚¬â€ an approach that focuses on capturing customer emotional feedback about products to drive improvement. 12.TQM —  total quality management  is a management strategy aimed at embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. First promoted in Japan with the Deming prize which was adopted and adapted in USA as the  Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award  and in Europe as the  European Foundation for Quality Management  award (each with their own variations). 13. TRIZ  Ã¢â‚¬â€ meaning â€Å"theory of inventive problem solving† 14. BPR —  business process reengineering, a management approach aiming at ‘clean slate' improvements (That is, ignoring existing practices). 5. OQM — Object-oriented Quality Management, a model for quality management. Proponents of each approach have sought to improve them as well as apply them for small, medium and large gains. Simple one is Process Approach, which forms the bas is of ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management System standard, duly driven from the ‘Eight principles of Quality managagement', process approach being one of them. Thareja[4]  writes about the mechanism and benefits: â€Å"The process (proficiency) may be limited in words, but not in its applicability.While it fulfills the criteria of all-round gains: in terms of the competencies augmented by the participants; the organisation seeks newer directions to the business success, the individual brand image of both the people and the organisation, in turn, goes up. The competencies which were hitherto rated as being smaller, are better recognized and now acclaimed to be more potent and fruitful†. [5]  The more complex Quality improvement tools are tailored for enterprise types not originally targeted. For example, Six Sigma was designed for manufacturing but has spread to service enterprises.Each of these approaches and methods has met with success but also with failures. Some of the common differentiators between success and failure include commitment, knowledge and expertise to guide improvement, scope of change/improvement desired (Big Bang type changes tend to fail more often compared to smaller changes) and adaption to enterprise cultures. For example, quality circles do not work well in every enterprise (and are even discouraged by some managers), and relatively few TQM-participating enterprises have won the national quality awards. There have been well publicized failures of BPR, as well as Six Sigma.Enterprises therefore need to consider carefully which quality improvement methods to adopt, and certainly should not adopt all those listed here. It is important not to underestimate the people factors, such as culture, in selecting a quality improvement approach. Any improvement (change) takes time to implement, gain acceptance and stabilize as accepted practice. Improvement must allow pauses between implementing new changes so that the change is stabi lized and assessed as a real improvement, before the next improvement is made (hence continual improvement, not continuous improvement).Seven step quality manufacturing process improvement Improving quality manufacturing processes can result in decreased waste, better quality products, and an overall improvement in customer satisfaction. The following are tips for seven step quality manufacturing process improvement. Before you start, however, you will want to develop a committee that is in charge of overseeing the steps and making sure they come to fruition. It's best to involve the whole company if possible, but in the beginning a committee can help to ensure the steps are completed and taken from beginning to end.Step one: The first step is to define the actual process. This is important as it provides a foundation for improving your processes. During this first step, you should name the process and its purpose, as well as its starting and ending points, inputs and outputs, and y our overall requirements. It would also be a good idea to identify the customers and suppliers who will be affected by this process Step two: The next step involves identifying areas of improvement that are needed. This process is usually done by selecting a random sampling of a particular product that is being manufactured.This product is then tested for a variety of things that will have an impact on the end user and consumer. This can include durability, materials, toxicity, and so forth. There are a number of ways to go about this in manufacturing. Some of the more common areas of improvement in manufacturing include disintegration of parts, loose fasteners, and so forth and should be a main focus. Step three: Identify potential solutions for the problems. Once the problems have been identified, it is important to then find solutions for them. Brainstorm ith the committee, or consult specialists or higher ups in the manufacturing plants that can help you to arrive at the best po ssible solution. Additionally, you will want to get feedback from those who work on or with the process on a daily basis. Step four: After you have identified problem areas and then brainstormed for improvements, step four involves developing a more detailed solution for each problem area. In detailing how to solve the problem, include a budget, determine what personnel are necessary for making the improvements, conduct a projected cost analysis, and a time frame for completing the overall improvements.You will also need to determine how the rest of the manufacturing plant will be affected by this and whether it will slow production at any level. Step five: Put your plan into action. After a detailed plan has been made, it is time to implement it to improve your processes. Now is the time to involve everyone, from the highest levels of management in the manufacturing company down to the workers who utilize the process. Step six: Evaluate. Once you have put your plan into action and have achieved the results from it, you will need to evaluate your improvement process as a whole.Ask yourselves if the process had its desired effect. Was the process successful? Did it fix the problem? Did it eliminate waste? Did you implement the improvements on time and within budget? All of these factors should be taken into consideration. Step seven: Continue to repeat steps two and six as often as necessary to achieve improvement within the manufacturing plant. The overall goal is to decrease the need for a committee, and instead have all members of the plant continually working to improve. TAGUCHI’S APPROACH TO QUALITY ENGINEERINGA product’s cost can be divided into two main parts: before sale and after sale to the customer. The costs incurred before sale are the manufacturing costs, and the costs incurred after sale are those due to quality loss. A defective product which is scrapped or reworked prior to shipment is viewed by Taguchi as a manufacturing cost to the company, but not a quality loss. Qualityengineering is an interdisciplinary science which is concerned with not only producing satisfactory products for customers but also reducing the total loss (manufacturing cost plus quality loss).Hence, quality engineering involved engineering design, process operations, after-sales services, economics and statistics. Taguchi’s impact on the concept of quality control in the manufacturing industry has been far-reaching. His quality engineering system has been used successfully by many companies in Japan, the USA and elsewhere. Recently it is reported that several companies in Korea have used his methods with great success. He emphasizes the importance of designing quality control into the manufacturing processes.Also, he stresses that quality variation is the main enemy of quality engineering and that every effort should be made to reduce the variation in quality characteristics. Taguchi extensively uses experimental design primarily as a tool to design products more robust (which means less sensitive) to noise factors. Robust design is an engineering methodology for optimizing the product and process conditions which are minimally sensitive to the various causes of variation, and which produce high-quality products with low development and manufacturing costs. Taguchi’s parameter design is an important tool for robust design.His tolerance design can be also classified as a robust design. In a narrow sense robust design is identical to parameter design, but in a wider sense parameter design is a subset of robust design. Two major tools used in robust design are: * signal-to-noise ratio, which measures quality with emphasis on variation. * orthogonal arrays, which accommodate many design factors (parameters) simultaneously. References: 1. Internet: www. mitlecture. com www. wikipidia. com www. google. com/books 2. Books: 1. Kalpeak Jain 2. â€Å"Fundamental of Morden Manufacturing† By, Mp Grover

Food Borne Illness paper

This paper will explain how the infectious organism staphylococcus aureus is transmitted through food. Discuss a real life outbreak of staphylococcus aureus in the United States. Also describe the clinical symptoms, the duration of the symptoms, and any treatments for the disease. The author will discuss the steps to be taken to prevent further outbreaks, including personal as well as environmental precautions and methods that can be taken. Staphylococcus aureus bacteria (staph), is commonly found in pimples, infected cuts, and when people have colds (â€Å"Staphylococcus†, 2014).Therefore, staph can be transmitted from person to person from contaminated hands. The infection is spread from a person’s hands by contaminated objects such as razors, and sports equipment. Other ways of contamination could be close skin to skin transmission, crowded living conditions, cuts, and poor hygiene. Staphylococcus can cause food poisoning when a person does not properly refrigerate f ood, clean equipment, and if food is not properly prepared. In the early 1990’s 1,364 children became ill at a Texas elementary school after eating chicken salad (â€Å"Bad Bug Book: foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook†, 2013).The chickens was frozen and boiled, deboned, and cooled by a fan to room temperature. The chicken was refrigerated overnight and the next morning blended with other ingredients. The chicken salad was put in a thermal container and transported to 16 different school sights and held at room temperature until lunchtime. The chicken became contaminated during deboning. Probably because the food was not cooled fast enough. Some of the symptoms that a person has when he or she has become infected with the bacteria are vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, fever and nausea.The duration of the illness is approximately 24 to 48. If you have any of the above mentioned symptoms one should drink plenty of water and other fluids to p revent dehydration and get plenty of rest. Some people may require a visit to his or her doctor for treatment. The doctor can treat the skin infection by making an incision and draining the infected area and by prescribing antibiotics. Individual and environmental precautions that can be taken to prevent further outbreaks are: good hand washing techniques, use soap and running water when washing hands before and after eating, as well as after using the bathroom.Staph can exist on environmental surfaces. Therefore, sanitation of these areas should be done regularly. Most institution and eating places have guidelines for sanitation for these areas. People should also make sure that shared items are cleaned, such as your computer, cell phone, scissors clippers, children toys, and exercise equipment. One method that can be used to sanitize equipment is by using 1 tablespoon of bleach in 1 quart of water. This can help disinfect some objects.Also, use disposal towels or wipes. This paper has explained how the infectious organism staphylococcus aureus is transmitted through food, discussed an outbreak of staphylococcus aureus at an elementary school in Texas. Also, described the clinical symptoms, the duration of the symptoms, and any treatments for Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. The author has discussed the measures to be taken to prevent further outbreaks, including personal as well as environmental precautions and methods that can be taken.

Advanced Systems Design Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Advanced Systems Design Project - Essay Example The device will have a paralyzed robot that will be in a position to reach a certain point via a lee way that can be determined before the implementation of the system. The device will not be in a position to move, therefore, the device will be limited to the help of the emitting signals. For the device to be pushed in a certain section, the operator will control the rewuest of the machine by emiting the signals from various sections. To carry out the task the operators will be in a position to carry out the perception of the system that will be used in determining the error of the paper. The device will also have the two signal emitters for the carriage which are aimed at attracting the mobile robors and in transmitting the forces required to move the device in various directions. The signal intensity is dependent of the translation and rotation that is needed by the agent to move it in their prospected direction. The automatic device instrument will function by detecting the latitu de and altitudes through various processes. The detection of the energy that will be emitted will be important in coming up with topographical maps. However the device will only be able to detect a specific location that it will cover for the map. The efficiency of the device will vary from one instrument to the other. It is assumed that the device will only be able to see specific sections of the landscape. Therefore, it will be important to extrapolate the right landscape from the one that is tabulated.

Evaluation of Marx's and Weber's concept of class relevant to Essay

Evaluation of Marx's and Weber's concept of class relevant to understanding contemporary societies - Essay Example This leads to a relatively impoverished conception of the nature of antagonistic interests generated by class relations. Key readings from Marx ("The Communist Manifesto" and "On Classes") and Weber ("Class, Status, and Party") help us understand the sociological analyses of inequality in the concepts of social class, exploitation, surplus value, markets, status, and power. But there is always a difference of opinion between these two thinkers that clearly contrasts Marx's historical materialism and emphasis on class conflict with Weber's exploration of the overlapping sources of inequality in economic, social, and political spheres. (Chatterjee, 83) The importance of production relations in Marxian theory with Weber's emphasis on market relations could be a key prospect in understanding the basic or fundamental influence on modern European society. It could well be suggested that both property and market dynamics are important by relating each to the concepts of class composition. The basic concept may be incorporated into Weber's emphasis on social closure to more clearly differentiate social classes which could develop into a model of class structure, usefully differentiates relational and gradational conceptualizations of social class, and re-visits some key differences between Marxian and Weberian theory. But the end goal being the evaluation of Marxian and Weberian theory in the perspective of the modern society it could be well punctuated that the basic relevance of these perceptions are present even today but not necessarily in a visible manner. The insights of Marx and Weber remain integral to sociological analyses of inequality even as more recent scholarship has promoted more contextual, and some would say more nuanced, models. (Fletcher, 63) The basic perception of Marxian and Weberian theory relate to several critical debates in sociology, including structure versus agency arguments, functionalist versus social conflict models, and the debate over the primacy of class (as opposed to race or gender). In addition, the book's organization invites readers to think sociologically about the evolution of sociological theory itself; the connections between scholarly debates and the historical periods in which they are grounded are evident throughout the society. The concept of Marxian and Weberian theory is also useful for illuminating some of the differences between American and European intellectual traditions. If theoretical frameworks are identified by their silences as loudly as by their proclamations, then one of the defining characteristics of class analysis in Weberian tradition is the virtual absence of a systematic concept of exploitation. Nothing better captures the central contrast between the Marxist and Weberian traditions of class analysis than the difference between a class concept centred on the problem of life chances in Weber and a concept rooted in the problem of exploitation in Marx. This is not to say that Weber completely ignores some of the substantive issues connected to the problem of exploitation.It can be formulated easily, for example, Weber, like Marx, sees an intimate connection between

Virtual Team Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Virtual Team Management - Essay Example There were essentially two teams that worked in co-existence. The experience was a learning one because it taught me as an individual how to get along with people in the form of a virtual team. This experience also instilled in me the confidence to interact with people of my age and position to acquire new knowledge domains and thus get acquainted with the changing trends in the world of IT and indeed the business realms. I learned a number of different subjects during this virtual team experience which happened on a sudden basis. I did not have any prior experience of such a virtual team but this experience taught me quite a few aspects which are very dear to me now. The IT manager at my end told us beforehand that the individuals within the virtual teams, who would show outstanding attitudes and a habit to do things as they are asked of them, would be provided with additional incentives. This was my job for a very short time but I gained quite a lot. The virtual team management experience was also interesting because it asked all of us team members to be treated as one group rather than as separate individuals. Whatever the one team said was automatically perceived as our collective word and thus the whole approach brought in quite a few positives for the organization. It made us feel contented with what we were doing and how we were carrying out tasks and activities whilst being a part of the virtual team management experience (Ocker & Fjermestad 2008). The encouragement to do something new and novel was always there, and this was one of the reasons why I enjoyed the whole virtual team management set up. I am aware that this demanded quite a lot of time and space for the virtual team, and thus it would be reasonably sound that I shall gain more knowledge about such IT related subjects in the future. In this day and age, it is always good to know a thing or two about the IT set up architectures and since I am very interested in such discussions, one

Master Morality And Slave Morality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Master Morality And Slave Morality - Essay Example In master morality â€Å"bad† stands for â€Å"lowly†, â€Å"despicable† and it refers to people who are inconsequential and cowardly. In Nietzsche’s opinion, â€Å"bad† always concerns the idea of what is useful and never concentrates what is grant or great. On the other hand, Nietzsche established his ideology of good and bad based on persons and their actions. The doctrine of master morality constitutes the theory that the master generates value. Nietzsche introduces slave morality as a counter treatment against master morality and mentions that slave morality begins when Master morality is rejected. Slave morality always promotes the ‘nay- saying’ people and their attitudes. If the characteristics of a person are ‘evil,’ the better thing is its absence in a person’s life. In contrasting Master or noble morality, slave morality at all times encourages unassuming nature and patience. In addition, it is obvious that slave morality give confidence, the human virtues such as kindness, sympathy and humility among the people. Analyzing Nietzsche’s views about good and bad, one can come across some distinctions in their acceptance. In his view, good originates from self- confirmation and it is considered as the celebration of a person’s greatness, virtue and power. ‘Good’ stands for glorious and proud status of human mind whereas, bad always reveals lowly or despicable which enriches the concept what is useful, rather than what is great or virtue. The encounter between good and bad permits one to identify a hierarchy of people, the noble and great masters or aristocracy and common folk. Mater morality differentiates good and bad which underline the role of good and bad in human life. Good and noble person has kept the status of ‘fullness’ through his entire life and helps his fellow being with the help of distinct qualities like wealth, power and ability. â⠂¬ËœBad’ always disquiets irrelevance and forwardness among the people and it forces one to act as more cowardice, aggressive and irrelevant when good and noble person exposed his gratitude. Unlike the encounter between good and bad, good and evil is differentiated by slave morality. Simon May observes that â€Å"What is evil is absolutely negative and must be annulled if the good is to endure† (May, 2011, p.196). In this juncture, one can see that good concentrates human glory and proud. Whenever a person lost his master morality, he would express some signs of humility, sympathy and patience. ‘Evil’ strictly challenges the perceptible happiness of a noble man and it protest the noble or master morality through upholding humbleness and extreme patience, Nietzsche observes that ‘good’ requires the higher status of master morality among the people while, ‘evil’ demands to enhance the idea that morality is equivalent for all. Examin ing the attitude of Roman rulers towards slaves, Nietzsche introduced some innovative concepts about values. Nietzsche had established a new concept named ‘ressentiment’ which provided a new strategy of control, foster cowardice and the power for the compensatory pleasures. Bill Reynolds identifies that â€Å"Ressentiment is a state of repressed feeling and desire, which becomes generative of values† (Reynolds, n.d.). At present, ressentiment became an effective strategy for â€Å"

Dimensions of Intercultural Communication in Organizations Essay

Dimensions of Intercultural Communication in Organizations - Essay Example Japan, having a population of about 127 million people, is well-known for its business skills all around the world. Japan is the territory of peace and harmony that maintains to progress in an affirmative amalgamation of tradition and renovation. By means of its sophisticated and vibrant history and culture, Japan has shaped an individual form of hierarchy, respect and protocol that is still revealed in numerous social and business experiences at present. If some organization plans to do business with Japan, prospective victory lies under an understanding of this ethnically influenced protocol. The literacy rate in Japan is around 100 percent and 95 percent of the Japanese people have a high school learning. Japan is a dynamic, wealthy and thriving state, with the world's second largest financial system. Japanese consumers pay out hundreds of billions of dollars on foodstuff, outfits, tour, leisure and a broad range of further consumer supplies and services every year. The top Japanese companies are along with the most competent and unbeatable firms in the globe. Joblessness is down to approximately 4.1%, lesser than in most industrial nations. The standard Japanese household has above $100,000 in reserves, and disposable earnings of around $4,000 for each month. The majority of Japanese managers think that their ... Therefore, Japanese employees look for opportunities to take part in the management procedure. Resembling their workers, Japanese managers acquire a participatory approach. Participative Japanese leaders exercise a combination of both task centered and people centered perspectives to direct subordinates. Owing to this participative attitude, Japan is frequently used like an illustration of William Ouchi's Theory Z administrator Theory Z administration consists of the following Japanese management features. 1. Leaders and workers are equally motivated by a prevailing sense of commitment for their organization. 2. Workers look for responsibility and struggle for opportunities to progress in an association. 3. Groups are pleased with themselves when they contribute to managerial accomplishment by teamwork. 4. Japanese organizations offer a lifetime job security which develops strong relationships of sincerity among the workers and managers. Japanese managers distinguish with Theory X administrators like those from Middle Eastern states or Indonesia who think that their employees are naturally indolent. Theory X managers are strict, and hence exercise force and pressure of penalties to complete the task properly (Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003). Theory Z managers as of Japan are also dissimilar from leaders in China, Europe and North America who normally track the more paternalistic Theory Y perspective. In Theory Y, managers believe that employees will struggle and look for increased challenge and accountability counting on the rewards related with task attainment. Since Theory Z is participative, Japanese associations

Chinese Popular Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Chinese Popular Culture - Essay Example This has lead to the turn of events among the citizens of the country whereby the workers have been laid off from their duties in various state owned companies. The presence of unemployment in the People’s Republic of China has led brought about the growth of personal challenges for unemployed workers and human resource policy challenges for the government. The unemployed population must find a way to cope up with the sudden change of their livelihood by searching for a similar means of making a living. In this paper, will focus on how college graduates deal with unemployment and how crime and corruption, along with social stability and mobility play a role in the PRC today. Furthermore, a detailed explanation of how unemployment creates serious problems with access to housing, education, and basic social services in the People’s Republic of China (Latham, 1-35). The employment situation in China for new college and university graduates seems to be unusual compared to t he present working group. The presence of the graduate unemployment crisis in China portrays the possibility of the wasteful investment of scarce resources. This is due to the factor that plenty of capital has been invested in educating unemployed graduates, which could or else have been invested in job-creating productive programs in the country. The presence of a large population of unemployed graduates makes the job market be very competitive. Furthermore, the graduates are also to be blamed in this issue because they always have negative expectations under the pressure of seeking jobs. According, to surveys done by various research houses in the People’s Republic of China most of the graduating students prefer to get an employment contract first, then they would later reflect on pursuing a new job position which is what they really desire to be employed for an average of two years. This assumption by the graduating students makes it possible for the emergency of the under employment and high turnover in the job market. In addition to this, the students will have lower levels of job satisfaction, job involvement, work commitment, and internal work motivation. Therefore, these issues will also bring the issue to the employers at the long run (Sato, 40-45). The People’s Republic of China seems to be experiencing the extreme increase of college graduates has outpaced the structural transition and rashly shifted the labor supply from semi-skilled manufacturing workers to more knowledge- intensive service professionals. This makes it the main reason for experts in the field and various scholars to emphasize that China requires extensive vocational training and industry engineering skills, which will help the country in solving its need for having manufacturing workers. Recently, a debate has emerged that economists say that the current situation of unemployment in China seems to portray that the country is running out of surplus labor. The presence of the unemployment population among the youth is a very complex social problem whereby it must be solved urgently. In the People’s Republic of China, the youthful population is termed to be highly educated because most of the youth are graduates. According to the nature of the economic status of the People’s Republic of China, the graduates are unwilling to choice factory work whereby they opt to compete for office-based positions. It is evident that graduates are four

The adoption of common language poilcies in companies Essay

The adoption of common language poilcies in companies - Essay Example It tends to spawn behaviors and emotions resulting to inefficiencies and poor collaborative efforts hence, leading to poor performance and low company productivity. These inefficiencies tend to be overlooked since the companies direct their attention to the benefits of linguistic integration in order to fit in the globalizing market. The main reason English is being adopted fall under the pressure from the external global players who seem to be well equipped with the English language and its application in the business field. In addition, there is too much diversification of tasks related to a company among countries. If the corporate goals rely on departments within different countries that are working harmoniously, language becomes a significant element. Implementation of language mandate has revealed challenges in the transition from diverse languages to a common language2. The experience that employees have had when working using another language or engaging with a non-native speaker has proved difficult. GlobalTech, FrechCo, Global Moves, Carco and ChipCo are some of the companies that have tried or rather have implemented the language mandate. All of the companies are from different countries of origin; Germany, French, Japanese, United States and United States respectively. The language mandate was put into test, and the impact analyzed that shows that it resulted to psychological and emotional impacts to the employees3. GlobalTech introduced English to the German Employees, and this resulted to ineffective communication. FrenchCo had employees who were non-native speakers who were originally from France, but experienced challenged in having to communicate in English since some lacked sophisticated language skills. The same case is evident for GlobalMoves, Japanese Company where much time was wasted in a task that could have been done easily. For

Negotiation and Conflict Week 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Negotiation and Conflict Week 3 - Essay Example In this discussion, the different models such as Trust model and I/R/P model will be taken into concern as a form of effective strategies for addressing the conflicts which have been described in the first week’s assignment. Trust model The different features of Trust model can be viewed as valuable strategy for addressing any sort of conflict situations in an organization. The model explains two types of trust such as interpersonal trust and procedural trust (Furlong, 2005). Interpersonal Trust Interpersonal trust is a perception which states that an individual will not perform any such act that might harm the interest of other individual. The perception mainly depends upon people’s judgment about a person’s character, nature, value and integrity. One of the important characteristics of interpersonal trust is the reliance upon the assumption and belief rather on definite information (Furlong, 2005). Procedural Trust This form of trust generally permits an indivi dual to place their trust particularly in the process rather than the attitudes and ideas of the individuals involved. One of the major features of procedural trust is that it signifies the importance of placing trust in the procedure other than the attributes of an individual (SlideShare Inc.2012). In order to solve the conflict situations relating to non-acceptance of the rules by the employees and violation of maintaining the working guidelines which set by the higher authorities, the organization can apply both interpersonal as well as procedural trust associated with trust model as an effective strategy. From the perspective of interpersonal trust linked with Trust model, the aforementioned conflict situation can be solved as it largely encourages the parties i.e. the employees to emphasize upon their common interests as well as solutions. Moreover, interpersonal trust focuses upon two significant aspects which include skill improvement and communication between employees and t he higher authorities of an organization. The constant development of these factors might ultimately address the aforementioned conflict situations which are related to first week’s assignment. From the viewpoint of procedural trust, the aforesaid conflict situations of an organization can be addressed and solved as it encourages the employees to believe in the process in order to attain a favorable resolve connected with any disputes with the management of an organization (SAGE Publications. 2012). I/R/P model I/R/P model generally stands for interests, rights or power model which is regarded as a basic, broad and applicable process that can diagnose almost all dispute or conflict situations of an organization by a considerable level. This model recognizes three essential methods that can be uses to solve organizational conflicts. The methods have been described hereunder (Furlong, 2005). Interest-Based Processes This process is about reconciling or finding a solution which complies with the interest of the parties. Interest based approaches are more consensual and successful when both the parties are able to protect their respective interests (Furlong, 2005). Rights-Based Processes This process focuses upon securing the rights of the involved parties in the conflict situations by paying much attention to different sources of rights which include any laws, statutes, policies, contacts, policies and past practices among others (Furlong, 2005). Power Based Processes Th

Malware, Spyware And Adware Essay Example for Free

Malware, Spyware And Adware Essay How do we get Spyware How Spyware operates Spyware effects Man In Middle attack Counter-Measures Anti-Malware Techniques Bibliography Introduction: From the early days of cracking passwords and stealing information from personal computers, to deadly Internet based attacks that can shake entire’s nation security, cyber crimes have evolved from the endeavors of entertainment by cyber kiddies to organized crimes and terrorist activities of cyber mafia. Virus Attacks, hacking, browser hijacks, spam, phishing and so on are various manifestations of malicious activities that have evolved on the internet in last couple of decades. Malware is one such tool that has emerged as a widely preferred choice to consummate criminal activities on the Internet. Malware is new genre of hostile software, written in a high level language. Normally they target technical vulnerabilities in the system. Spyware, adware, Trojans, virus, worms are very common form of Malware prevalent on the Internet. It propagates through emails, IM and other web services. It can be categorized into criminal and business malware. Criminal malware is used in cyber terrorism and vandalism; while business malware is used for business/monetary benefits. Spyware is a software program that collects personal information of the users without their formal consent. Unlike viruses and worms, spyware does not usually self replicate, or intrude into the system directly or spread from one system to another; instead, it intrudes into a system by deceiving the user or exploiting software vulnerabilities in a system. Once it gets into the system, its implications can range from disturbing to devastating. It propagates using personalization cookies, tracking cookies, Trojans, drive-by downloads, hacking and piggybacking. Malware: Along with viruses, malware is the biggest threat today to the computer users. It can hijack the browser, redirect search results, serve up pop-ups and many more. Malware stands for â€Å"malicious software† and is used to identify all unwanted and potentially unwanted software. We can get infected by malware in several ways. It often comes bundled with other programs (examples include kazaa and i-mesh). These are usually pop-up ads, that send revenue from the ads to the program’s authors. Others are installed from the website, pretending to be software needed to view the site. Its most destructive feature is that once we are infected with the malware, it tends to multiply!! Earlier, it was mainly written for the destruction of computers and their data but now a days malware development is a big business. It is mostly used as a tool for extorting money out of its victims. In the form of rogue security programs, these are used to convince uneducated computer users to purchase the removal software from the same people who have written it. The types of malware are: Adware- It is the class of software that monitors the internet use for known e-commerce sites. When a user attempts to reach a site, adware pops-up suggesting an alternate site which may or may not be legitimate. Porn Dialers- This software was used heavily during the days when modem was the primary mechanism for connecting to the internet. This used to silently disconnect a modem from its service providers and redial to another premium rate telephone number. The resulting phone number charges, usually that of far-removed countries, would be found by the user only on its next telephone bill. Backdoors- These are the software tools which are mostly used to bypass existing security mechanisms present in either operating system or any application. Exploits- It is a general term used to describe any software code that is specifically designed to take advantage of a known weakness in operating system or application code. When vulnerabilities exist on a system, the exploits can be created to grant attacker administrative privileges, disclose or destroy any data or complete any task. Key loggers- These are the original spyware. It is a type of malware that is mostly used to â€Å"spy† on the user of a system. One way to accomplish this is to log every keystroke typed into that system and then using that data to extract credit card social security numbers and all other sensitive information. Trojans- It is software that illegitimately performs some action that is different than its stated purpose. It may appear to be a legitimate software package that accomplishes a task desired by the user but at the same time after installing it can also perform some illegitimate tasks like destroying personal data. Examples of malware: GAIN- It is one of the oldest and best known examples of malware, created by Claria company. webHancer- It is a spyware application that is commonly bundled with other programs. Upon installation, it starts a program that runs in the background and collect details of the webpages we visit. ISTBar- It is a combination of toolbar and hijacker. It installs a toolbar with search functions provided by slotch. com. Recent Attacks:- Katrina-themed Malware attack Hits the Net This malicious site hosted in Poland harbors a secondary line of attack designed especially to dupe windows users. It cynically offers a â€Å"free scan† for the zotob worm that in reality infects users. It also exploits well known IE vulnerabilities to install a variety of Trojans including Cgab-A, Borobot-Q etc. Most Recent Malware: Stealth Malware Stealth is a program that deliberately tries to conceal its presence in the system. It may try to hide changes it introduced in the system, including dropped files, file changes, running processes, registry settings etc. Malware Development Life Cycle- In recent years, malware has evolved in complexity to rival many decent sized software projects. This indicates an improvement in decent methodologies that enables malware producers to improve their output and capability to achieve maximum gain. Following are the steps generally deployed by the creators of malware to ensure its success: Get the malware onto the target system. Ensure the survival of the malware in the target system. Once establish engage its payload. There are several ways by which malware can be installed on the target machine. Some of these include websites or vulnerabilities in software installed on target machine. There are also actively spreading worms, which propagates via emails, peer to peer network, and IM. A growing trend is not to target vulnerabilities in software but to exploit the users of that software. Malware tricks the users and entice the user to download. One of the major requirement of malware is to remain undetected and viable once installed on the target machine. For this purpose the most common techniques used are compression and encryption. Now a days two more techniques are getting common i. e. code obfuscation and executable injectors. Once establish the main job of malware is to deliver the payload. This payload varies from malware to malware. Spyware- It is a type of malicious software that collects information from a computing system without his/her consent. It can capture keystrokes, screenshots, internet usage habit other personal information. The data is then delivered to online attackers who sell it to others or use it themselves for marketing or identify theft. How do we get spyware:- The main culprits in spyware transmission are:- Unprotected web browsing – Many advertising companies send tracking files, called â€Å"cookies,† along with their banner, ads or provide â€Å"special offers† that, when clicked, install extra software without our consent. Peer-to-peer applications – Kazza Lite is a notorious carrier of spyware installation packages. Many MP3 sharing sites also cause spyware problems. Opportunistic â€Å"freeware† or â€Å"shareware† programs – Weatherbug is one such program which collects more information than it is authorized. Web browsers using cookies – Any web browser can permit spyware to be installed on clicking the page that installs it. Some legitimate commercial software – Windows Media Player and America Online are considered sources of spyware. Each installation of Windows Media Player includes a uniquely identifying number that is provided to Microsoft, and America Online installs additional software packages that report data usage to advertising companies. How Spyware operates: When keywords of interest like names of banks, online payment systems etc are observed, the spyware starts its data collection process. The most common area of interest for spyware is the data sent using HTTPS i. e. HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure. This HTTPS is mainly used for very sensitive data and uses Secure Socket Layers(SSL) Transport Layer Security(TLS). Encryption using these SSL TLS makes it difficult to intercept data during transmission but when spyware is running on the end user’s computer, it is collected before encryption. Man-In-Middle Attack Man in Middle Attack or Bucket Brigade Attack can be active as well as passiveform of eavesdropping. It is a type of attack in which the cyber criminal funnels communication between two users and none of the user is aware that the communication is being illegally monitored. The man in middle employ spyware that when loaded on the consumer’s computer redirects the web browser to the fake site. Countermeasures: Users/Organizations can formulate their anti-malware strategy depending upon the type and complexity of Malware attacks that they are exposed to, and the level of risk associated with such attacks. Different organizations use different tools and approaches to counter malware attacks. These tools and approaches are often based on their functionality, suitability and a cost. The two basic approaches are: Reactive Approach Proactive Approach Reactive Approach- It is an incident response process. In this method, once a problem is encountered, the investigation of the problem, analysis and findings remedy, and documenting the resolutions for future is done and that too mostly in same order. The existing anti malware tools available, identify the malware by scanning the computer executable files check if any know malware have sneaked into the system. This is done by detecting programs that are making changes to the operating system registry. Here, there are only three alternatives for dealing with malware:- Running Malware removable tool to detect and repair malware. If, anti-malware tool fails, Malware can be removed manually by the administrator or formatting the system. Use anti-Malware tool to prevent them from entering the system. Proactive approach- In this approach, the Malware can be deleted even before they get executed. It can be done in following ways:- Apply latest firmware to hardware systems and routers as recommended by vendors. Apply latest security patches to server applications and other applications. Ensure recent anti virus software is running. Maintain a database that keeps track of what patches have been applied. Enable firewalls. Enforce strong password policies. Use Least-privileged user account(LUA). This will do less damage as compared to high privileged processes. Anti-Malware techniques: When a worm or virus starts spreading into the computer networks, one must be able to react quickly to minimize the outbreak and damage it can cause. Traditionally, organizations use firewalls and antivirus scanning tools in order to prevent Malware from entering the system. These tools are used as a protective wall between a node and its network and the internet. The main motive is to prevent malicious code from entering into the system. However, these firewalls antivirus scanning tools and traffic monitors are not free from technical vulnerabilities, that can still be exploited by new generation Malware. Advanced Anti-Malware techniques: Integrating filters ‘with signatures’ – Having layers of application filter on the network, will increase the efficiency of the security tools. Advanced antivirus tools, firewalls, web and email filters can be clubbed together, with latest updates/patches to prevent Malware from entering the system. This approach reduces the probability of Malware intrusion to minimum possible. Though not zero. For example, Malware that attacks the web-browser normally bypasses the firewalls, but gets identified and deleted by web filters. Similarly, a new Malware whose signature is not there in any of the filters can still sneak into the network unnoticed. ‘Multi-Layered Defense’ without signatures- It is very much similar to the ‘Integrating Filters’ approach but the only differentiating factor is that they can detect any malware even without their definition or signatures. In the integrating filters with signature technique there is a vulnerability i. e. these are amenable to attacks by unidentified or reported Malware. To overcome that vulnerability ‘Malware without signature’ approach must be adopted. It includes following technologies.

Melkersson-Rosenthal Syndrome: A Case Study

Melkersson-Rosenthal Syndrome: A Case Study Dr. Shruti Bohra Dr Pratik B Kariya Dr Seema Bargale Abstract: Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome (MRS) classically shows a triad of orofacial swelling, fissured tongue and facial palsy, more commonly the oligosymptomatic form. The orofacial swelling is characterized by fissured, reddish-brown, swollen, nonpruritic lips or firm edema of the face. The facial palsy is indistinguishable from Bells palsy. The least common feature is fissured tongue, although seen in one third to one half of patients but when present it assists in the diagnosis. The histologic finding of MRS includes noncaseating, sarcoidal granulomas, not invariably but their absence does not exclude the diagnosis. All these findings together provoke the careful search for provocative causes for the reactive symptom complex of the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. Key words: Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. chelitis granulomatosa, facial palsy, fissured tongue. Introduction: Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome is considered to be a rare syndrome. Hornstein- estimated the incidence to be 0.08%.1MRS is a non-caseating granulomatous disease showing (complete or incomplete form) a triad of facial paralysis, orofacial oedema and fissured tongue (scrotal tongue, lingua plicata, or furrowed tongue). Orofacial swelling is the most consistent and dominant feature of the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. In a review of 200 patients diagnosed with Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome, it was the most frequent initial presenting sign.2Most commonly the lips are affected, with the swelling sometimes confined only to the lips. Cheilitis granulomatosa (or granulomatous cheilitis) is achronic inflammatory granulomatous swelling of the lip, which is referred as Miescher cheilitis which is generally regarded as a monosymptomatic form of the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome.3 Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome usually presents in a monosymptomatic or oligosymptomatic form. Around 200 cases are re ported in a review of Zimmer et al2, we hereby report an additional case. Case report: A 16 year old female patient reported to dental OPD with the chief complaint of generalized gingival enlargement as well as swelling in upper and lower lip since 8-9 months. Patient was apparently alright 9 months back when she had an episode of fever which lasted for 8 days and subsided with medication taken from a local clinician. It was followed by episodes of remission exacerbation of gingival enlargement with swelling of upper lip with pus discharge and bleeding to touch since 8-9 months. Then patient was referred to the department of oral pathology for needful. On examination face was bilaterally asymetrical with swelling of face on right side. Both upper and lower lips were swollen (markedly swollen upper lip) (Fig: 1). On palpation the swelling had normal temperature, was not painful, and was nonpitting and rubbery in consistency. Face was flattened on left side. Mandible was deviating on right side on opening of mouth. On intraoral examination generalized gingival enlargement was noticed which was covering cervical 1/3rd of almost all the teeth present in the oral cavity (Fig: 2). Teeth preset were incisors to second molars in all four quadrants. The tongue had deep grooves and fissures. A long prominent central groove was evident on the dorsum of the tongue going in a straight line with numerous small grooves and fissures running laterally from the middle third of the tongue (Fig: 3). An initial diagnosis of angioedema was made. Diphenhydramine hydrochloride, 100 mg, was administered intramuscularly followed by a course of diphenhydramine hydrochloride, 50 mg orally, four times a day. After 24 hours no noticeable reduction in facial swelling was evident. Therefore, re-evaluation of the diagnosis was necessary. As a result of this history, recurrent cheilitis granulomatosa consistent with Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome (MRS) was added to the differential diagnosis. A biopsy specimen of the affected lip area was sent for histopathologic examination, confirming the final diagnosis of MRS. On histopathological examination the mucosa consisted of parakeratinized, hyperplastic, stratified squamous epithelium overlying collagenous connective tissue. Within the connective tissue there were discrete aggregations of lymphocytes, generally with a perivascular distribution; however, some bad central foci of histiocytes consistent with granulomatous lesions. The histologic findings were consistent with cheilitis granulomatosa. (Fig: 4) Treatment consisted of application of lip gloss to prevent cracking of the exposed mucosa. No further treatment was deemed necessary except continuation of his regular biannual preventive recall appointments. Discussion: Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome (MRS) classically shows a triad of orofacial swelling, fissured tongue and facial palsy. Oligosymptomatic form of this syndrome is more common one of the example is Miescher cheilitis.3Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome may often go undiagnosed for some day as in present case. History states that Rossolino in 1901 was the first to describe a particular association of oedema of the face, facial nerve palsy and scrotal tongue, the syndrome was named after Melkersson and Rosenthal.4 In 1928, Ernst Melkersson, a Swedish physician, described a 35-year-old woman with facial edema and paralysis. Shortly after, in 1931, Curt Rosenthal, a German neurologist, described 3 patients who had fissured or plicated tongues in addition to orofacial swelling and facial palsies and proposed a link between the triad of symptoms. Subsequently, the triad of clinical findings came to be known as the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. Although MRS is reported as commonly found during the second to fourth decades of life, there are many published reports of MRS in children and preadolescents, Roseman et al 7 described a case of MRS in a 7-year-old girl, Cohen et al 8 described four cases of MRS in children younger than the age of 11 years, and Yuzuk et al 9 described the case of a 13-year-old girl who presented with the oligosymptomatic form orlabial edema coupled with fissured tongue. Melkersson Rosenthal syndrome does not appear to have an obvious predilection for either sex, although Some claim that it is slightly more common in females. 6,7,8 No particular racial predilection has been noted in MRS. Etiology of this disease remains largely unknown. 10 In granulomatous cheilitis normal lip architecture is altered by presence oflymphoedemaand noncaseating granulomas in the lamina propria.TH1 immunocytes produceinterleukin12 and RANTES/MIP-1alpha and granulomas.Expressionof protease-activatedreceptor1 and 2 occurs in orofacial granulomatosis (OFG).HLA typingmay show HLA-A2 or HLA-A11.11 Pathogenesis of MRS was suggested by Hornstien.1 He suggested that abnormal regulation of the autonomic nervous system leads to excessive permeability of the facial cutaneous vessels. From this abnormal circulation, nonspecific antigens then stimulate the perivascular cells to form granulomas. Obstruction of perivascular vessels by granuloma has been proposed as a causative factor in the swelling. 1 Initially, a patient with MRS usually complains of painless facial swelling that has persisted for a long time. Further investigation may reveal a history of previous episodes of swelling associated with facial paralysis or fissured tongue that the patient has never connected. The most common symptom of MRS is recurring orofacial swelling in which the upper lip is more often affected. Other areas affected by orofacial swelling in MRS in order of frequency, are cheek, nose, eyelid, alveolar process, and chin.2,12 Zimmer et al 2 reported orofacial manifestations in 42 patients with MRS who were examined at their clinic: they also reviewed 220 cases reported in the literature between 1965 and 1990. They found that 82% of patients presented with labial swelling, 40% had swelling in other parts of the face, not including the lip, 24% had Bells palsy, and 59% had fissured tongue. Other areas of intraoral swelling were, in order of frequency, the gingiva ( 11 % ), buccal mucosa ( 16% ) palate (8%). and tongue (7%). The swelling of the face and lip is described as recurrent, nontender, nonpitting, and firm, but not of hard consistency. The orofacial swelling is usually sudden and, in most cases, precedes facial paralysis by weeks, months, and even years. 2, 5, 6. First episodeof edema sometimes accompanied by fever and mild constitutional symptoms (as seen in present case e.g. headache, visual disturbance) usually subsides completely in hours or days. Recurrences can range from days to years, each recurrent episode lasts longer and is more pronounced, and swelling may ultimately become permanent. 2,5,6 The facial paralysis associated with MRS is frequently indistinguishable from Bells palsy. The site affected by paralysis usually corresponds to the site of swelling. As in the present case with facial swelling, the paralysis is on right side. Each recurring episode is more profound and lasts longer. 6,13,14 Other neurologic presentations associated with MRS are altered taste, migraine headaches, and trigeminal neuralgia.2,5,6,13,15 Fissured tongue ( eg. lingual plicata) is usually found at birth and therefore considered an incidental finding of MRS. Nevertheless, fissured tongue is ten times more likely to be found among individuals diagnosed with MRS than in the general population. 2, 6, 15. Miyashita et al 16 described MRS in a 56-year-old woman, who was afflicted with cheilitis granulomatosa caused by lingual candidiasis of a fissured tongue. The edematous lesion, on histopathologic investigation, is a noncaseating epithelial cell granuloma with perivascular mononucleated lymphocytic infiltrate. Fibrosis of the granulomas is typical in long-term and recurrent lesions. 1,2,17 Differential diagnosis includes Crohn’s disease, sarcoidosis, Aschers syndrome, and allergic angioedema, leprosy, tuberculosis.1,5,15,17,18,19 In Lab studies Serum angiotensin-converting enzymetestmay be performed to help exclude sarcoidosis.Reactions to metals, food additives, or other oral antigens are excluded by using Patch tests which may be associated with some cases of granulomatous. 20 If found positive they are advised to avoid the allergen. Imaging studies like gastrointestinaltractendoscopy, radiography, and biopsy may be used to differentiate from Crohn disease. Chest radiography or gallium orpositron emission tomography(PET) scanning may be found helpful in excluding sarcoidosis and tuberculosis. Orthopentamogram (OPG) helps in ruling out presence of a chronic dental abscess. A final diagnosis of MRS is made from the clinical history and histopathologic assessment of the edematous tissue, which usually includes the lip. When biopsy of the edematous tissue is difficult or not warranted, then a history of recurrent idiopathic facial swelling associated with atleast one of the following two entities, idiopathic facial paralysis (ie. Bells palsy) or fissured tongue, is sufficient to make a positive diagnosis of MRS. Treatment of MRS is aimed at the facial swelling and the paralysis. Because the etiology and pathogenesis of MRS are not well understood, treatment continues to be empirical and, in most cases, unsuccessful. Fortunately, both the swelling and the paralysis are selflimiting and usually go into remission on their own. Treatment with oral prednisone or nerve decompression has been shown to be effective.1,5,6 Treatment with oral prednisone or nerve decompression has been shown to be effective.5 Also, interlesional injections with triamcinolone hexacetonide suspension have been shown to provide temporary benefit.12 Plastic surgery may be considered in the case of permanent fibrotic lesions. Nevertheless, thorough documentation by many dentists eventually allowed MRS to be included in the differential diagnosis. This case highlights the importance of good history taking, regular follow-up and thorough documentation for proper patient management. References: HornsteinOP. Melkersson-Rosenthul syndrome: A neuromucocutaneus disease of complex origin. Curr ProbI Dermatoi 1973 ;5:117-156. Zimmer WM, Rogers RS. Reeve CM, Sheridan PJ. Orofacial manifestations of MeIkersson-Rosenthal syndiume: A study uf 41patients and review of 22tn cases from the literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral PiU ho I IW:;74:61O-6I9. Rogers RS 3rd: Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome and orofacial granulomatosis, Dermatol Clin.1996 Apr;14(2):371-9 Magid El Shennawy and Galala El Enany: Melkersson-Rosenthalsyndrome; Review of theliteratureand report of acase, The Journal of Laryngology Otology Volume87 / Issue09 /September 1973, pp 898-902 Green RM. Rogers RS, Melkersson-Rosentlial syndrome: A review of 36 patients. J Am Acad Dermatoi 1989:21:1263-1270. Orlando MR, Atkjns JS Jr. Melkersaon-Rosenthal syndrome. Arch Otolaryngol Mead Neck Surg I99O;116:728-729. Roseman B, Fryns JP, Van den Bergle C Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome in a 7-year-old girl. Pediatrics 197S;61:490-491. Cohen HA. Cohen Z, Ashkenasi A, Straussberg R. Frydman M, Kauschansky A, Varsano 1. Melkersson-Rosen thai syndrome. Cutis 1994:54:327-32S. Yuzuk S, Trau H, Levy A. Shewaeh-Millet M. Melkersson- Rosenthal syndrome. Int J Dermatoi i9SS:24;456-457. Tilakaratne WM, Freysdottir J, Fortune F. Orofacial granulomatosis: review on aetiology and pathogenesis.J Oral Pathol Med. Apr 2008;37(4):191-5. Ketabchi S, Massi D, Ficarra G, et al. Expression of protease -activated receptor-1 and -2 in orofacial granulomatosis.Oral Dis. Jul 2007;13(4):419-25. Miele FA Jr. Tlie big lip. Diagnostic and treatment considerations. Gen Dent 1994;42O.i8-:59. Graff-Badlord SB. Melkersson-Rosen thai syndrome, A review of the literature and a case report. South Afr Med J 1981:60:71-74, Balatiieh AB. Pillai KG, Maiisour M. Ai-Khail AA. An unusual case of the Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1995:80:289-292. Winnie R, DeLuke DM. Mel kersson-Rosenthal syndrome: Review of literature and case report. Int J Oral Ma.illofac Surg 199;;; 1:115-117 Miyashita M, Baba S, Suzuki H. Role recurrent oral caniiidiasis associated with lingua plicata in Me I kersson-Rosen thai syndrome. BrJ Dermatol 199Ã ®:l.l2:.ll 1-312. Minor MW Fo^ RW, Bukant; SC, Lockey RF. Melkersson- Rosenthal sjndrome. J .Miergy Clin Immunol l9a7;S0:64-67. Kano Y, Shiohara T. Yagita A, Nagashima M. Association between cheilitis granulomatosa and Crohns disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993:281:801. Lloyd DA, Payton KB, Guenter L, Frydman W. Melliersson-Rosenlhal syndrome and Crohns disease: One disease or two? Report of a case and discussion ofthe literature. J Clin Gastroenterol I994;18:213-2I8. Fitzpatrick L, Healy CM, McCartan BE, Flint SR, McCreary CE, Rogers S. Patch testing for food-associated allergies in orofacial granulomatosis.J Oral Pathol Med. Jan 2011;40(1):10-3. Figure legends: Figure no 1) extraoral photograph showing swollen upper and lower lips. Figure no 2) intraoral photograph showing generalized gingival enlargement Figure no 3) intraoral photograph showing deep grooves on dorsal surface of tongue Figure no 4) photograph showing histological presentation of chilitis glanduralis at low power (10X) and high power (40X) Learning ponts Concomitant presence of orofacial swelling, fissured tongue and facial palsy or any one of them may be a case of Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome (MRS). A final diagnosis of MRS is made from the clinical history and histopathologic assessment of the edematous tissue. Melkersson–Rosenthal syndrome may recur intermittently and can become a chronic disorder. Gold: History, Properties and Nanoscale Analysis Gold: History, Properties and Nanoscale Analysis Since first extracted in the 5th century, Gold has been regarded as one of the most important matters in the world. When divided into smaller fragment sizes, way below 100nm it becomes even more ‘precious’. The optical, catalytical and electronic properties of Gold nanoparticles differ greatly from those of their bulk counterparts. This is mainly due to the large surface area-to-volume ratio as well as the spatial confinement of the free electrons of Gold nanocyrstals. Gold at Bulk scale Noble metals such as Gold, silver and platinum exhibit plasmonic properties. When the surface of a noble metal is hit with incident light, electrons which are situated on the surface begin to oscillate. This is known as the surface plasmonic resonance (SPR), as illustrated in figured 1. Metals are able to absorb and reflect light with great efficiency to their SPR. It is because of these plasmonic properties that noble metals such as Gold, silver and platinum are widely used in jewellery. Moreover being highly reflective metals makes them very appealing to the eye. Plasmonic properties arise due to noble metals having delocalised electrons on the surface. An atom consists of protons, electrons and neutrons. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons and the electrons spin around the nucleus in different orbitals. There are many orbitals in metals which overlap and form metallic bonding between the atoms. In the bulk form, there are many delocalised electrons within the metal that cause metallic bonding. This in turn allows the electrons to flow freely between the nuclei. Good electrical and thermal conductivity is due to the delocalised electrons Gold at Nanoscale Reflection does not occur in particles which are smaller than the wavelength of the incident light; however there is still an interaction between the nanoparticles and the light. The two main interactions are light scattering and light absorption. Electrons tend to oscillate at the same frequency as the light which was absorbed causing a dipole moment around the nanoparticles where all the electrons on the surface of the nanoparticle are oscillating. The oscillating dipole is known as a localised surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). Electromagnetic radiation is released when these electrons are oscillated. This can be seen in figure 2. The secondary electromagnetic radiation released by the nanoparticles is called scattered light. The electromagnetic radiation that is released has the same frequency History The synthesis of colloidal gold, or nanogold as it is now called, has been known to man since the ancient times. Although the process was not fully understood, synthesis of colloidal gold was crucial to the 4th century Lycurgus cup. The Lycurgus cup was known to change colour depending on the direction of light. Later it was used as a method for staining glass. A potion made from gold, which was also known as an Elixir of Life was discussed, and may also have been manufactured, in ancient times. It was not until the 16th century that the alchemist Paracelsus, claimed that he had created a potion called Aurum Potabile. (latin: potable gold). It was in the 17th century that the glass-colouring process was refined byAndreus CassiusandJohann Kunckel, allowing them to produce a deep-ruby coloured form of glass. However modern scientific evaluation was first made by Michael Faraday in the 1850s. Faraday is said to have been inspired by previous work done by Paracelsus. In 1857 Faraday prepared the first pure sample of colloidal gold, which he called activated gold, in 1857. Phosphorus was used to reduce a solution of Gold chloride. For a very long time chemists were unclear about the composition of the Cassius ruby-gold. Several chemists suspected Cassius ruby-gold to be a gold tin compound due to its preparation, However it was Faraday who was the first to recognize that the colour was actually due to the minute size of the gold particles The first colloidal gold in solution was first prepared in 1898 by Richard A. Zsigmondy. Shape and size tuning Fine tuning of shape and size in a controlled environment is one of greatest challenges faced by material scientists. These factors are not only very important in the rational design of nanomaterials, but are also equally as important for their applications. This is because many of their catalytical, optical and electronic properties of nanomaterials depend greatly on their size and shape. In Gold nanorods the longitudinal plasmon wavelength exhibits a nearly linear dependence on their aspect ratio, making it one of the most intriguing properties possessed by Gold nanorods. Moreover, even when looking at Gold nanorods with the same aspect ratio, the plasmon resonance properties are strongly dependent on the shape of their head. Over the past five years, the ability to finely tune the shape and size of Gold nanorods, has made huge progress. Seed mediated growth Gold nanospheres Changing the diameter of the sphere can easily and effectively tune the optical properties of gold nanospheres. This can easily be shown using the Mie Theory, which has been successfully shown to model the light scattering and absorption properties of spherical particles on a nanometer scale. The intense peak in the spectrum for each particle can be seen in figure 9. This peak is caused by the oscillating electrons which in turn produce a single dipole. Increasing the diameter of the gold nanosphere results in shifting the peak to a higher wavelength, this indicates the interaction between the light and particles is changing. In comparison to bulk gold (figure 4), the optical properties of gold nanospheres differ immensely. The local medium can also change the optical properties of the particles. This is due to the LSPR of the particle interacting with the medium. A change in the medium can result in a measurable change in the optical properties of the particles. In addition shape of the gold nanoparticles can significantly alter the optical properties. Gold nanorods Gold nanorods are of great interest due to their biocompatibility and NIR ( near infra-red) optical properties. The shape of the gold nanorod is what determines its NIR properties. The non-spherical shape of the particle causes two different dipoles to form when interacting with light. The transverse dipole (diameter) and the longitudinal dipole (length) account for the oscillating electrons throughout the particle. The dipole interactions affect the optical properties of the particles. GNR LSP illustration Optical properties of GNRs The aspect ratio (A.R) is defined as the length over the diameter of the Gold nanorod (GNR). The shape of the particle causes the absorption and light scattering spectrum to have two peaks: longitudinal and transverse. The interaction between these two dipoles causes the longitudinal peak to be observed in the visible to NIR region. The longitudinal peak is much more intense than the transverse peak and can be tuned by changing the aspect ratio of the gold nanorods. As the A.R of the gold nanorods is increased, the longitudinal peak shifts into the NIR region. The optical properties of GNRs have been successfully modelled using Gans theory and Discrete Dipole Approximation (DDA). Two equations were derived using the two theories to output the longitudinal peak wavelength by inputting a given aspect ratio. GANS THEORY DDA The two equations can predict the A.R of GNRs using absorption data collected from the UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer. The equations can give preliminary estimation of the A.R before observing the particles on a TEM. Figure 11 displays the absorption data, estimated A.R from theory, and a visual representation for a set of GNRs with different aspect ratios. The tunable optical properties of the GNRs make them very desirable for a wide range of applications. The visible representation shows a colour shift as the A.R changes. Visual representation of different shapes and sizes of GNRs Normalised absorption of the particles

Organopalladium Reagents and Intermediates

Organopalladium Reagents and Intermediates Joà £o T. V. Matos Table of contents Table of contents 1. Introduction 2. Organopalladium reagents and intermediates 2.1. The characteristic features for the use of palladium in organometallic chemistry 2.1.1. Oxidation States of Palladium 2.2. Preparation of organopalladium reagents and intermediates 2.2.1. Ï€-Ally Palladium Complexes 2.2.2. Cyclic aryl palladium complexes 2.2.3. Palladium Olefin and Diene Complexes 2.2.4. Palladium-TV-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes 2.3. Methods for structural characterisation of organopalladium reagents 2.3.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 2.3.2. Infrared spectroscopy 2.3.3. X-Ray crystallography 3. Applications of palladium-catalysed organic reactions 3.1. Palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions 3.1.1. The Heck reaction 3.1.2. The Stille Reaction 3.1.3. The Suzuki reaction 3.1.4. The Negishi Reaction 3.1.5. The Sonogashira Reaction 3.1.6. The Tsuji–Trost Reaction 4. Final remarks Bibliography 1. Introduction Organometallic chemistry is discipline devoted to the study, not only of the compounds and intermediate species with metal-carbon bonds, but also the comprehensive study of all transformations and interaction between organic molecules and a inorganic metal from the main groups, transition series, lanthanides and actinides (Astruc, 2007; Crabtree, 2005). This interface discipline, between classical organic chemistry, coordination chemistry and inorganic chemistry, has proved, in the last decades, very useful to provide some important conceptual insights, new structures, and catalysts for different applications areas of organic synthesis, both in the academic and in the industrial fields (Crabtree, 2005). Organometallic chemistry also began to have a major impact on other areas such as: biochemistry with the discovery of enzymes that carry out organometallic catalysis; chemistry of materials due to the proprieties of some organometallic compounds to be used was precursors for depositin g materials on various substrates via thermal decomposition of the metal compound; nanoscience and nanotechnology due to the proprieties of some organometallic compounds to be used precursors for nanoparticles; and green chemistry by minimizing both energy use and chemical waste of several organic synthesis (Crabtree, 2005). The first organometallic substance to be prepared was synthesized in 1760, in a military pharmacy in Paris, by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt. This French chemist, who was working on cobalt-containing inks, used arsenic-containing cobalt salts for their preparation. From this work was resulted the so-called â€Å"Cadet’s fuming liquid† which contains a mixture of tetramethyldiarsine and cacadoyl oxide (the first documented organometallic compound) by carrying out the following reaction (Equation (1)): (1) However, despise several organometallic compound discovered, along the eighteenth and nineteenth century’s, the truly â€Å"boom† of organometallic chemistry only occurred during the third quarter of the twenty century, in especially in countries like the United States of America, England and Germany (Astruc, 2007). One of the facts that contributed to this was the recognition of the potential of some d-block transition metals (i.e. nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium, and ruthenium) organometallic reagents and intermediates as superior catalysts for new bond formation (i.e. carbon-carbon bonds) and their unique property to activate a wide range of organic molecules (Negishi, 2002; Schlosser, 2013). In this review, one of these d-block transition metals and their organometallic reagents based and intermediates will be put in broader perspective, the palladium. The use of this metal, has truly revolutionized the organic synthesis field over the last three decades, being nowadays, the most widely used element in organic synthesis (Crabtree, 2005). Probably the most notable example of its importance of the palladium intermediates as catalyst in organic synthesis is the attribution, by the Swedish Nobel Committee, of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi, and Akira Suzuki for their work in palladium-catalysed cross couplings in organic synthesis (Nobelprize.org, 2013). This review will attempt to highlight some of the outstanding properties of the organopalladium reagents and intermediates, identifying the main ways of preparation of these components, some of the most important analysis procedures to obtain their structural characterization, and prese nt some of the numerous applications and reactions where these compounds play an important role. 2. Organopalladium reagents and intermediates 2.1. The characteristic features for the use of palladium in organometallic chemistry Palladium is a chemical element discovered and isolated in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston who named it after the asteroid Pallas, which was discovered a year before. Is a transition metal and belong to the 10th group, 5 period, and d-block of the periodic table. This atom, with atomic number of 46 and average atomic weight of 106.4 could occur naturally in seven isotopes, which includes six stable isotopes. Palladium, is nowadays one of the most versatile, selective, ubiquitous and significant metals used for organic synthesis and had truly impacted this field in the last four decades (Negishi, 2002). This fact is mainly because no other transition metals can offer such versatile to the abundance of possibilities of carbon–carbon bond formation that the palladium reagents and intermediates can offer (Tsuji, 2004). Furthermore, despite the palladium complexes are, in several reactions, highly reactive are stable enough to be used as recyclable reagents and intermediates, in catalytic processes (Negishi, 2002). In this sense palladium-mediated processes have become essential in several applications, namely in the syntheses of natural products, polymers, agrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals (Caspi, 2008). Despite the palladium being a rare and very expensive noble metal, there are several characteristic features and chemical properties which make reactions involving palladium reagents and intermediates particularly suitable in organic synthesis. One of the most important characteristic feature appears to be its moderately large atomic size factor which contribute to the moderate stability of its compounds and their controlled but wide-ranging reactivity leading (Negishi, 2002; Tsuji, 2004). Furthermore, its moderated size associated with high d-electron count, and its relatively high electronegativity (2.20 and 1.57 in Pauling and Sanderson scales, respectively), classified this element as â€Å"soft† element, which makes it a real alternative to the more traditional and â€Å"hard† organometallic reagents, such as the magnesium (Grignard) and lithium compounds (Negishi, 2002). Other important characteristic features is the tolerance from the palladium reagents and inter mediates to several functional groups (i.e. carbonyl and hydroxy groups) and which means that the palladium-catalysed reactions can be carried out without protection of these functional groups (Tsuji, 2004). Furthermore, palladium reagents and intermediates have a low tendency to undergo one-electron or generate radical in the reaction processes, reducing the possibility of unwanted side reactions and making the palladium-catalysed reactions quite clean and selective. Finally, another important feature, especially in the green chemistry context is their lack of toxicity problems associated and therefore they do not require too many special handling cares (Negishi, 2002). 2.1.1. Oxidation States of Palladium The most common oxidation states of palladium are 0, +1, +2, +3, and +4 (Pd(0), Pd(I), Pd(II), Pd(III), and Pd(IV), respectively). The palladium oxidation states of +1, +2, +3, and +4 correspond to d9, d8, d7, and d6 electron configurations, respectively, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1.Representative d electron configuration of Pd(I), Pd(II), Pd(III), and Pd(IV) oxidation states (based on reference (Mirica and Khusnutdinova, 2013)) The vast majority of palladium-catalysed reactions, until the beginning of the twentieth-one century, were only focused in the reactions involving Pd(0) and Pd(II) oxidation states, since Palladium strongly favours this two oxidation states (Mirica and Khusnutdinova, 2013; Negishi, 2002). Despite the bulk of the organopalladium literature is centered on the use of Pd(0) and Pd(II) oxidation states, already in 2002, in the Handbook of Organopalladium Chemistry for Organic Synthesis, Negishi point out that the utilization of other oxidation states (Pd(II), Pd(III), or Pd(IV)), although it is still very rare, could become o be very significant in the future (Negishi, 2002). More than ten years later, and with the rapid evolution in the organopalladium chemistry, complexes with palladium in these oxidation states, especially the Pd(IV), have demonstrated their potential and they improved significantly their role in organic synthesis. Although the development of Pd(IV) chemistry has just begun, this has already made possible the development of a number of significant new transformations. Pd(IV)-catalysed reactions usually show a high selectivity and synthetic robustness, and in almost all of them the use of catalysts are generated in situ from commercially available palladium salts, making them particularly attractive from the viewpoint of cost effectiveness (Muà ±iz, 2009). However, by comparison with the Pd(0), Pd(III), or Pd(IV), complexes of odd-electron Pd(I) and Pd(III) oxidation states are much less used. Yet, despite the study of this oxidation states remains in its infancy, Pd(I) complexes have already been employed as pre-catalysts in organic synthesis (Canty, 2011) and despite the potential role of Pd(III) intermediates in catalysis is currently more speculative, this subject beginning to emerge considerable interest, as can be highlighted by the different articles and reviews on the subject (Canty, 2011; Mirica and Khusnutdinova, 2013; Powers and Ritter, 2011). 2.2. Preparation of organopalladium reagents and intermediates In the majority of the organic reactions that use palladium as catalyst, the organopalladium species are generated in situ during the course of the reaction, instead of a preparation of stoichiometric organopalladium reagents, ensuring that only a catalytic amount of palladium is used. In these cases, the reaction mechanisms should include a step were the organopalladium species are formed, the steps in which the formed species react with other reagents to generate a particular product(s), and the step in which organopalladium species are regenerated in a catalytically active form (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). There are several types of organopalladium intermediates extensively used in reactions with considerable importance in several synthetic applications. As reviewed by Schlosser (2013), more than 64000 entities with a palladium-carbon bond are known. Consequently, in this review, only the preparation of some of the most common organopalladium reagents and intermediates will be addressed. As special cares to have in the preparation of these complexes, palladium complexes, unlike the organometallics from the Group I and Group II, are not water sensitive. Consequently, in almost cases, strict exclusion of water is not necessary. Although, some reactions can beneficiate from the presence of water traces or can even be performed in water as solvent or co-solvent. Furthermore, palladium complexes could be quite to moderately air stable. Consequently, it is advised to conduct reactions using these complexes under an inert gas (i.e. argon or nitrogen) (Schlosser, 2013). 2.2.1. Ï€-Ally Palladium Complexes One of the most important organopalladium intermediates are Ï€-allyl complexes. The most common Ï€-allyl palladium complex, the dimer [(n3-C3H5)PdCl]2, was discovered more than 50 years, serves as starting material for a number of other complexes (Schlosser, 2013). Ï€-allyl complexes, can be synthesize from Pd(II) salts, allylic acetates, and other compounds with the potential of leaving groups in an allylic position, or can be prepared directly from alkenes by reaction with PdCl2 or Pd(O2CCF3)2. In this second scenario, the reaction occurs by electrophilic attack on the Ï€ electrons followed by loss of a proton, as represented in Scheme 1 (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). Scheme 1.Synthesize of Ï€-Ally Palladium Complexes by electrophilic attack on the Ï€ electrons (based on reference (Carey and Sundberg, 2007)). Due to the low electrophilic power, these complexes usually reacted with less-substituted allylic terminus of a variety of nucleophiles. After this reaction occurs, the resulting organopalladium intermediate breaks down by elimination of Pd(0) and H+, as described in Scheme 2 (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). Scheme 2.The overall transformation of the allylic substitution. (based on reference (Carey and Sundberg, 2007)). 2.2.2. Cyclic aryl palladium complexes Another important organopalladium intermediates are the cyclic aryl palladium complexes, or palladacycles (Schlosser, 2013). This complexes, are quite relevant role in cascade transformations leading to complex molecular architectures, in the proximally) directed arylation reactions, and in several intramolecular cross-coupling reactions (Beletskaya and Cheprakov, 2004). Palladacycles intermediates can easily be obtained by palladation reactions starting from Pd(II) salts and an arene having a directing group (Schlosser, 2013). Scheme 3.Palladacycles intermediates obtained by palladation reactions (R = NR2, PR2, etc., and Y = alkyl, aryl, etc.). Based on reference (Schlosser, 2013). In the cases where the directing group is an amine (e.g., benzyl or homobenzyl amines) or a phosphine (e.g., aryl phosphines), as represented in the Scheme 3A, the mechanism occurs by an electrophilic addition to the arene, and could include Pd(IV) intermediates. On the other hand, as represented in the Scheme 3B, Alkylarenes can also be substrates for palladacycles, in which, the activation of sp3-carbons next to an arene is presumably forced by agostic interactions (Schlosser, 2013). 2.2.3. Palladium Olefin and Diene Complexes The major group of organopalladium intermediates are the palladium Olefin and Diene Complexes. Pd(II) complexes having olefin ligands (i.e. 1,5-cyclooctadiene (COD), norbornene, or norbornadiene) can be obtained by reaction of Pd(II) chloride in the presence of the appropriate alkene (Carey and Sundberg, 2007; Schlosser, 2013). In this reaction the alkenes react with Pd(II) to give Ï€ complexes that are subject to nucleophilic attack. However, the products formed from the resulting intermediates are depending of the specific reaction conditions used. In the first case, represented in Scheme 4 as the path a, palladium can be replaced by hydrogen under reductive conditions. On the other hand, in the absence of a reducing agent occurs the obliteration of the Pd(0) and a proton, leading to the substitution of a vinyl hydrogen by the nucleophile, as represented in path b of the Scheme 4. (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). Scheme 4.Synthesize of the Palladium Olefin complexes. Based on reference (Carey and Sundberg, 2007). However, it is important to note that several of these palladium Olefin and Diene complexes are already commercially available (Schlosser, 2013). 2.2.4. Palladium-TV-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes Palladium-TV-Heterocyclic Carbene (NHC) complexes have been recently introduced as powerful ligands for palladium. These NHC complexes have as main advantage the fact that they are quite stable, easy to handle, air-stable and can be easily be prepared from the ligand and palladium precursors (Chartoire et al., 2012; Schlosser, 2013). The NHC-based palladium complexes have been used very successfully for a series of different reactions, namely some cross-coupling reactions and aryl amination (Chartoire et al., 2012; Schlosser, 2013). In Figure 2 are shown some examples of these NHC-palladium catalysts, already used to ensure the efficiency of those reactions. Figure 2.Examples of NHC-palladium complexes: A) [Pd(NHC)(R-allyl)Cl] developed by Nolan; B) [Pd-PEPPSI-NHC] developed by Organ; and C) [Pd(IPr*)(cinnamyl)Cl] developed by Chartoire et al.. Figure adapted from the reference (Chartoire et al., 2012). 2.3. Methods for structural characterisation of organopalladium reagents The identification and structural characterization of the organopalladium reagents and intermediates, is of utmost importance in organic synthesis field, to understand the behaviour and proprieties of these compounds. However, it can be quite challenging and somewhat tricky task to accomplish. To achieve the identification and structural characterization of the organopalladium reagents and intermediates, the main analytical methods used rely on the complementarity of information provide from spectroscopic and crystallographic techniques, such as multinuclear nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and x-ray crystallography. 2.3.1. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Multinuclear NMR spectroscopy is certainly the key methodology to elucidate molecular structures in solution. Consequently, just as has already happened in organic chemistry or biochemistry, it is now routine to measure NMR spectra of diamagnetic organometallic and coordination compounds. Nowadays, on a routine basis, organometallic chemists daily measure hundreds or even thousands NMR spectra, not only to identify and characterize the molecular structure of a given organometallic but also to verify if a reaction has taken place (Pregosin, 2012). The most investigated active nuclei in organometallic chemistry are, by far, 1H and 13C. However, there are several others readily measurable spin =  ½ nuclei, such as 15N, 19F and 31P, that provide structurally valuable chemical shifts and a diagnostic spin-spin coupling constants. Furthermore, often the measure of 1H and 13C NMR spectra alone may not be sufficient, especially when it is necessary understand the immediate environment of the metal canter and these probes are spaced apart from the metal (Pregosin, 2012). NMR is therefore widely applied for analysis to organopalladium reagents. For example, 1H NMR is the most reliable characterization technique which can be used on hydridopalladium complexes (Negishi, 2002). Moreover, there are several examples in the literature of the application of multinuclear NMR to organopalladium complexes (Leznoff et al., 1999; Paà ±ella et al., 2006; Satake et al., 2000; Schlosser, 2013). Even the 15N, and 31P NMR methodologies, are also are widely used in the characterization of organopalladium reagents, being possible to find studies in this field with more than thirty years (Motschi et al., 1979). 2.3.2. Infrared spectroscopy Infrared (IR) spectroscopy provides the spectral information corresponding to vibrational modes of a molecule. The position of the bands in the Infrared (IR) spectrum depends mainly of the on the strength of the bond(s) involved as measured and the reduced mass of the system calculated using the atomic weights of the atoms involved in the molecule (Crabtree, 2005). Consequently, IR spectroscopic are very useful to obtain a fast confirmation of the presence of some functional groups (i.e. C=O, C=N). However, this method should not be used as a sole characterization technique, since, for example, although the hydride ligands from the hydridopalladium complexes are expected to have Ï…(Pd-H) stretches occurring in the distinctive region of 1950–2060 cm-1 in the infrared spectrum, they are often very weak signals and are also rather dependent on the trans effect of the opposite ligand (Negishi, 2002). 2.3.3. X-Ray crystallography The structural characterization in the solid state, namely that provided by X-ray crystallography is an extremely important part of organometallic chemistry. In the method, a beam of monochromatic X-rays pass through a single crystal of the sample. Consequently, this beam is diffracted in the crystal in various angles, providing in photography the pattern of the crystal spots. The intensity of this set of diffracted beams will depend on the nature and arrangement of the atoms in the unit cell. Thus, the intensities provide the information about the locations of the atoms in the unit cell, while the relative positions of the spots on the photography film carry the information about the arrangement of the unit cells in space (Negishi, 2002). The results of an X-ray structural determination should be represented as a diagram showing the positions of all the atoms in the molecule, as represented in the Figure 3 for two different organopalladium complex (i.e.{Pd[(p-(Noxyl-tert-butylamino- 2-)phenyl)diphenylphosphine]2Cl2}, and{(ÃŽ ·-C3H5)Pd [(p-(Noxyl-tert-butylamino-2-)phenyl)diphenylphosphine](Cl)}) (Leznoff et al., 1999). Figure 3.A typical X-ray crystallographic characterisation of two different organopalladium complex (from the reference (Leznoff et al., 1999)) However, in addition to being assured that organometallic compounds (i.e. organopalladium complex) allow the growth of crystals to be used in this technique, there are some limitations than need to be overcome. First of all, since the X-ray diffraction results are usually based on one only crystal, is necessary to ensure that this crystal is representative of the bulk and free of impurities. One way to check that each crystal is the same material as the bulk of the sample is using the information from the IR spectrum. Furthermore, it is necessary to ensure that the solid state is really the same as the structure of the same material in solution, since several organometallic complexes exist as one isomer in solution but as another in the solid state. This point is especially relevant when the solid state X-ray results are compared with the solution NMR data. Again, in this aspect IR spectroscopy can be also very useful because we can obtain a spectrum both in solution and in the solid state, which emphasizes the need for the information complementarity of these characterization techniques (Negishi, 2002). 3. Applications of palladium-catalysed organic reactions As already pointed out, since the second half of the twenty century, palladium had increased its relevance and role in organic chemistry, in particular in metal-catalysed reactions. Palladium, together with some other transition metals, have the unique property to activate a wide range of organic molecules and thus to catalyse various bond formations. This metal, by far is the most commonly used metal, is thus of utmost importance in a wide range of applications, not only in academic circles but also in industry (Schlosser, 2013). An example of this application is the Wacker process. This reaction, discovered in the 1960s, uses catalytic amounts of palladium to oxidize ethylene to acetaldehyde, and is still widely used in industrial applications (in 2007, was generating four million tons of acetaldehyde per year (Astruc, 2007)). Another factor that has emphasized the importance of using palladium as a catalyst of organic reactions in academic and industrial applications was the introduction of several palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions. This fact can easily be verified by more than 200 natural products and biologically active molecules synthesized making use of the Heck reaction (section 3.1.1) and the â€Å"ton scale† fine chemicals produced in the industry using the Suzuki reaction (section 3.1.3) (Schlosser, 2013). Furthermore, these reactions also allowed the total syntheses of molecules used in the in the production of several medical drugs such as Naproxen (anti-inflammatory drug), Taxol (anti-cancer drug), (Z)-tamoxifen (anti-cancer drug), and morphine (Carey and Sundberg, 2007; Schlosser, 2013). 3.1. Palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions The introduction, in the last quarter of the twenty century, of palladium as catalyst in carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions, a new paradigm for carbon–carbon bond formation has emerged allowing the assembly of highly complex molecular structures and completely changed how the chemical synthesis is performed (Nicolaou et al., 2005). The capability of this reactions to forge carbon–carbon bonds between or within functionalized and sensitive substrates have received an enormous amount of attention among the synthetic chemists, and their scope has been very significantly expanded during the last several years, not only in not only in total synthesis but also in medicinal, biology and nanotechnology (Nicolaou et al., 2005). In general, the palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions can be represented by the Scheme 5. However, in this equation, for any given combination of R1 and R2, several parameters should be changed or optimized, namely the metal countercation M, the leaving group X, the palladium catalyst, the introduction of some additives or co-catalysts, the solvent, and even others parameters such as temperature, time, concentration, and mode of addition (Schlosser, 2013). Scheme 5.Geral model of the palladium-catalysed carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions (based on reference (Schlosser, 2013)). The characteristics of an ideal palladium-catalysed cross-coupling reaction can be listed as follows (Schlosser, 2013): Varied and inexpensive methods to set up the coupling substrate functionality from commercially available starting materials Easily activated high-yielding coupling under mild conditions; Generation of the minimal amount of by-product preferably by employing low-molecular-weight donors; Excellent functional group compatibility; General stability of the cross-coupling substrates; Low toxicity of precursors, substrates, and generated by-products. In this review, despite the extremely long list of all the possible carbon-carbon cross coupling reactions involving Palladium as catalyst, it will focus on the reactions that embody several of the above mention characteristics and are most commonly used namely, the Heck, Stille, Suzuki, Sonogashira, Tsuji–Trost, and the Negishi reactions. These reactions, have truly revolutionized the organic synthesis field (Nicolaou et al., 2005), and, as already mentioned, should be noted that the authors and works that gave birth to three of these reactions (Heck, Negishi, and Suzuki) were recently awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry 2010 (Nobelprize.org, 2013), which emphasizes even more the importance of these reactions. 3.1.1. The Heck reaction The Heck cross coupling reaction has been developed independently by Mizoroki, (Mizoroki et al., 1971), and improved by Heck (Heck and Nolley, 1972) in the early seventies of the twentieth century. However, it took more than a decade for the potential of this reaction, be explored by the wider synthetic organic community, namely with the development of catalytic asymmetric Heck reactions (Nicolaou et al., 2005). The Heck reaction, as presented in Scheme 6, can be broadly defined as the palladium-catalysed coupling of a vinyl, aryl, benzyl halide or a trifluoromethanesulfonate (OTf) group with an olefin to yield products which result from the substitution of a the hydrogen atom in the olefin coupling partner (Nicolaou et al., 2005). Scheme 6.The overall mechanism of the Heck reaction (R4 = aryl, benzy